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+, \ . 0 . * R F4 $ F4 + ^ ^ F4 + % 7! ! . . ` m% ` Post-modern engineering education: An examination of the case-study methodology to reinforce ethical decision-making practice
M S Reid
Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
Email address - maxwell.reid@aut.ac.nz
Abstract:
In this article I discuss the teaching methodology of dilemma-based group discussion and decision-making by the use of case-studies to reinforce learning in the Engineering Studies paper at the Auckland University of Technology (AUT). The use of case studies in dilemma-based group discussion is currently a globally popular teaching tool which enables the students to critique other peoples decisions in hindsight, and practise their own value-based engineering decision-making. The paper concludes by identifying areas within this interpretive teaching methodology where further research could gauge the effectiveness of using dilemmas as a teaching tool in value-based decision-making in the area of engineering ethics and sustainability. The article raises some questions concerning the dynamics of this type of group learning, and has been a small part of the investigation in my current PhD study programme here at AUT.
Keywords: Ethics, dilemmas, case-studies.
Introduction to post-modern engineering educationThe 1960s is considered part of the modernist era in which the American influence on science (and engineering) education was heavily influenced by the space race and the cold war. Having broken away from the irrationality and superstition of preceding ages through a period of enlightenment, the period of modernism during this era began with an epistemological faith in science, the scientific method, and the ability to reason to discover absolute forms of knowledge. Such knowledge was good for its own sake, and one gained knowledge through education, with a positivist philosophy within this modernist era ADDIN EN.CITE Crotty19982311231Crotty, M1998The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research processCrow's Nest, AustraliaAllen & UnwinResearch, Research Process, Social Research, constructivism,(Crotty, 1998).
Scientific thinking stood neutrally as the paradigm for all socially useful forms of knowledge; it was derived from direct experience and observation by way of scientific method rather than speculation through abstract reasoning or beliefs based around superstition or myths ADDIN EN.CITE Crotty19982311231Crotty, M1998The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research processCrow's Nest, AustraliaAllen & UnwinResearch, Research Process, Social Research, constructivism,(Crotty, 1998). This was an age where science was taught as if science should be value-free ADDIN EN.CITE Alchin19981439143Alchin, D1998Values in science and science educationFrazer, B JTobin, K GInternational handbook of science educationDordrecht, NLKluwer Academic Publishers1083-1092values, value-free, science education(Alchin, 1998). Within this ideal world scientific thinking and practices operated with theoretical frameworks or paradigms ADDIN EN.CITE Kuhn19623109310Kuhn, T S1962The structure of scientific revolutionsChicagoUniversity of Chicago Press(Kuhn, 1962), that offered confidence in the conviction that scientific knowledge was both accurate and certain, and with an objective approach to education that theory could be distinguished from reality ADDIN EN.CITE Crotty19982311231Crotty, M1998The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research processCrow's Nest, AustraliaAllen & UnwinResearch, Research Process, Social Research, constructivism,(Crotty, 1998).
At that time it was believed by some scholars that everybody who understood science and technology would make the same decisions on any issue following the laws of reasoning, completely unbiased by politics or financial considerations ADDIN EN.CITE Frazer198639139Frazer, M JKornhauser, K1986IntroductionFrazer, M JKornhauser, KEthics and social responsibility in science educationOxfordPermagon PressSocial responsibility, science education, dilemma,(Frazer & Kornhauser, 1986). With such a modernist approach in engineering education, engineering subjects were taught without any reference to the economic, environmental, political, cultural, technological and global aspects ADDIN EN.CITE Nguyen20052590259Nguyen, D QPudlowski, Z J2005Environmental engineering education in an era of globalisationGlobal Journal of Engineering Education9159-68Environmental Engineering, Global,(Nguyen & Pudlowski, 2005). But quite often scientists and engineers who are equally well informed on a particular scientific or engineering issue can contrast idealism and realism resulting in very different views and opinions on that issue ADDIN EN.CITE Frazer198639139Frazer, M JKornhauser, K1986IntroductionFrazer, M JKornhauser, KEthics and social responsibility in science educationOxfordPermagon PressSocial responsibility, science education, dilemma,(Frazer & Kornhauser, 1986). The positivist claim that social life can be explained through an examination of observable proven fact without any reference to subjectiveness is now rejected ADDIN EN.CITE Bullock20002551255Bullock, ATrombley, S2000The new dictionary of modern thoughtLondonHarperCollins3rd(Bullock & Trombley, 2000), and values are now a significant part of the engineering decision-making process.
In the field of engineering a high standard of personal integrity is now expected of any engineer, particularly for those engineers in a position of responsibility, who are charged with the responsibilities of good engineering decision-making. Some of this decision-making requires knowledge of ethics. This decision-making process of a modern engineer has undergone a change in expectations over a period of time, as engineering is no longer a simplistic process of construction and reconstruction and as Bader ADDIN EN.CITE Ilic200253353Ilic, V2002A foretaste of engineering ethics13th Annual ConferenceCanberraAustralian Association for Engineering145-150Engineering ethics, students ability,(Ilic, 2002) pointed out, modern engineering is at a turning point, where it is evolving from an occupation that provides employers and clients with competent technical advice, into a profession that serves the community in a socially and environmentally responsible manner, and the consequences of poor decision-making in engineering can be far-reaching; sometimes catastrophic. Understandably, modern science and engineering industries need a new type of professional. The main area of change is the requirement of a very high level of skills, attitudes and personal qualities with an increasing need for engineers to choose technological solutions that are appropriate to their social context, with consideration of the long term impacts of their work. Modern technology can have a global impact on future generations and there is a moral imperative to consider what may have been thought of as unintended consequences of decisions in the past.
Consequently, the engineer has a moral responsibility to consider the environmental, cultural and social aspects of any decision when making an engineering decision, and in this respect engineering university graduates will be required in future to meet societal needs, without endangering the Earths natural systems and resources.
AUT Engineering Studies Paper I jointly conduct an Engineering Studies paper within the Auckland University of Technologys School of Engineering that includes ethics and sustainability for all final year students of both the Bachelor of Engineering, and the Bachelor of Engineering Technology. I teach the ethics section of the paper, and have published a text book for the ethics section of the paper ADDIN EN.CITE Reid20063821382Reid, M S2006The social responsibilities of engineeringAuckland, NZAuckland University of Technology(Reid, 2006), which helps university engineering students develop their understanding of the ethical expectations of behaviour and decision-making in the engineering industry, together with a theoretical grounding of understanding the roles of technology in society. The instruction of sustainability is covered by Ms Heather Stonyer, who has assembled an extensive student manual for the purpose.
Throughout the Engineering Studies paper the students are given the opportunity to discuss and learn about the concept and responsibilities of engineers in relation to ethics and sustainability in engineering practice and decision-making. The studies use high-profile case studies to develop the students social responsibility and shape their views and reactions to value dilemmas with an ability to make ethical decisions and possess an appreciation of ethical conduct within the engineering profession.
The promotion of moral stance in educationThe current global trend to teach values-based decision-making is not exclusive to engineering education as both Kohlberg ADDIN EN.CITE Kohlberg19843781378Kohlberg, L1984The psychology of moral development: The nature and validity of moral stagesSan FranciscoHarper and RowKohlberg19843781378Kohlberg, L1984The psychology of moral development: The nature and validity of moral stagesSan FranciscoHarper and Row(1984) and Habermas ADDIN EN.CITE Habermas19963801380Habermas, J1996Moral consciousness and communicative actionCambridge, MAMIT Press(1996) subscribe to the promotion of a moral stance in education. In search of a suitable teaching methodology to reach Keirls ADDIN EN.CITE Keirl20032037203Keirl, S2003Ethics and technology education: Another ac-prac or an education for humanity?Martin, GMiddleton, HInitiatives in technology education: Comparative perspectivesBrisbane, AustraliaGriffith University148-161Ethics, Technology education,(2003) ideals for engineering education, a probe into the psychology of education reveals the view of Zimmerman and Schunk ADDIN EN.CITE Zimmerman20043639363Zimmerman, B J,Schunk, D H,2004Educational psychologyMahwah NJLawrence Erlbaum Associates(2004), that education is not a process of teaching students to learn facts to be regenerated at some later point in their study or career. The purpose of post-modern education is to teach the students good habits that shall be useful later in life. The purpose of behaviour and habit forming education is to help create thoughtful, independent, generous and energetic citizens (p. 55).
As a contrast to the modernist period of enlightenment, Zimmerman and Schunk ADDIN EN.CITE Zimmerman20043639363Zimmerman, B J,Schunk, D H,2004Educational psychologyMahwah NJLawrence Erlbaum Associates(2004) promote an education philosophy that teaches people how to evaluate the information they have before them, and to make decisions that are morally sound. To put this philosophy into practice, I researched educational methodologies to find an effective teaching strategy for ethics and sustainability at AUT.
Participative teaching methodsIn a literature review of teaching methods I discovered the research of Installe ADDIN EN.CITE Installe19962370237Installe, M1996How to educate engineers towards a better understanding of the relationships between technology, society and the environmentEuropean Journal of Engineering Education214304-397Decembertechnology, environment(1996), who recommends moving the teaching emphasis from passive lectures towards more active, participative, project-oriented teaching methods. At school level in the United States the moral development theories of Kohlberg ADDIN EN.CITE Kohlberg19843781378Kohlberg, L1984The psychology of moral development: The nature and validity of moral stagesSan FranciscoHarper and Row(1984) have revolutionised the study of moral development with a five stage progression of moral immaturity to maturity for school children. Piaget ADDIN EN.CITE Piaget19771461146Piaget, J1977The moral judgement of the childHarmondsworthPenguinMoral, Moral development,(1977) was one of the pioneers of moral development research and moral education, and Kohlberg (1984) further developed a cognitive-development theory of moral development based on Piaget's work on moral development. Essentially, Kohlbergs theory takes children from the simple egoistic (or what he refers to as egocentric) stance at an early age, progressively through to a level of maturity that views the world from a contractual, altruistic and principled point of view.
However, the AUT Engineering Studies paper is without the luxury of these multiple stages of personal growth and the imperative was for AUT engineering education to move from the modernist era into a postmodernist concept or age with a strong social constructivist approach to empower students to think for themselves. In terms of engineering Keirl ADDIN EN.CITE Keirl20032037203Keirl, S2003Ethics and technology education: Another ac-prac or an education for humanity?Martin, GMiddleton, HInitiatives in technology education: Comparative perspectivesBrisbane, AustraliaGriffith University148-161Ethics, Technology education,(2003) identifies a moral culture for engineering education based on three elements, namely knowledge, attitudes and skills;
Knowledge; concerning not only technology itself, but also methods of foreseeing its consequences, ways, methods of teaching and criteria for assessment. The education of engineers should include non-technical subjects including the philosophy of technology, general knowledge of technology, valuation of technology, managing of technology, and typical problems associated with the field of science and technology by considering its relationship with society.
Developing skill; not merely the skills of creating and using technology, but also foreseeing its consequences, the assessment of risk connected with the developments of specific technologies, the ability to embrace technology in the processes of social and individual life, and the ability to communicate and negotiate.
Creation of attitudes; the creation of rational attitudes towards technology and its development, which would be far from extremely triumphant or catastrophic. Such attitudes, albeit not totally free from emotion, need to be rationalised and built upon factual calculation of the various consequences of introducing technology, which would form the basis of legitimisation and acceptance.
However, the sequences in which complex cognitive competences are acquired can vary because the different domains of activity have different structures. Both Bandura ADDIN EN.CITE Bandura19893289328Bandura, A1989Social cognitive theoryVasta, RAnnals of child developmentGreenwichJAI Press6. Six theories of child development(1989), and Habermas ADDIN EN.CITE Habermas19843761376Habermas, J1984The theory of communicative action: Reason and the rationalization of societyBoston, MABeacon Press1(1984) divided these structures into three identifiable ontological concepts of learning:
Personal (subjective) - the totality of subjective experiences where the learning covers subjective experiences, desires, feelings, intuitions, visions and ideas. Very often the test for validity is truthfulness and sincerity.
Interpersonal (Social/Organisational) - the area where validity claims are questioned by validity or justification.
Technical (Objective/Scientific) - where the validity claim is truth, the factual basis for discipline-based knowledge, and may be brought about by purposeful intervention.
Although the first two items become important in the AUT Engineering Studies paper to facilitate an exploratory type of learning, item three is the positivist nature of modernist engineering education. Taylor ADDIN EN.CITE Taylor19951530153Taylor, E A1995Professional values and attitudesAustralasian Journal of Engineering Education62values, attitudes, objectivity, professionals, areas for debate, debate, responsibility, risk, loyalty, conflixct of interest.http://elecpress.monash.edu.au/ajee/vol6no2/7taylor.htm(1995) also suggests that a class should explore the subjective nature of human decision-making, (rather than an objective process), and the values and attitudes which impact on our decision making, with recognition of the rights of diverse groups to be part of the decision making process. To achieve such an objective, many researchers ADDIN EN.CITE Weil200019716197Weil, V2000Prospects for international standardsThe Online Ethics Center For Engineering and Science200220th Mayhttp://onlineethicscenter.org/codes/weil.htmAgne19861667166Agne, R M1986Teaching strategies for presenting ethical dilemmasFrazer, M JKornhauser, KEthics and social responsibility in science educationOxfordPermagon Press165-173Dilemmas, teaching ethics, Role-playing, case studies, simulation games,Pritchard1992901690Pritchard, M S1992Teaching engineering ethics: A case study approachTeaching engineering ethics,Case study approach, case studies,http://ethics.tamu.edu/pritchar/an-intro.htm(Agne, 1986; Pritchard, 1992; Weil, 2000) promote the dilemma as a useful teaching methodology for group decision-making within a class.
Using the case-study for group decision-making In the educational process, Andrew and Robottom ADDIN EN.CITE Andrew2001404Andrew, JRobottom, I2001Science and ethics: Some issues for educationNorris, SIssues and trends: Science education856769-780code of ethics, values,(2001) see the understanding of ethics as an intellectual process for investigating and evaluating ideas about values, and Winner ADDIN EN.CITE Winner19903027302Winner, L1990Engineering ethics and political imaginationDurbin, PBroadtrod narrow interpretations of philosophy of technology: Philosophy and technology 7BostonKluwer53-64(1990) reinforces this by suggesting that it should include a willingness to engage others in the difficult work of defining what the crucial choices are that confront a technological society. Many teachers and researchers advocate that ethical instruction is better served by problem-centred knowledge where knowledge is complemented by practice ADDIN EN.CITE Winner19903027302Winner, L1990Engineering ethics and political imaginationDurbin, PBroadtrod narrow interpretations of philosophy of technology: Philosophy and technology 7BostonKluwer53-64Andrew2001404Andrew, JRobottom, I2001Science and ethics: Some issues for educationNorris, SIssues and trends: Science education856769-780code of ethics, values,(Andrew & Robottom, 2001; Winner, 1990), and a common teaching methodology for providing this teaching tool which actually engages the students in ethical decision-making is the use of group-study dilemmas ADDIN EN.CITE Weil200019716197Weil, V2000Prospects for international standardsThe Online Ethics Center For Engineering and Science200220th Mayhttp://onlineethicscenter.org/codes/weil.htmAgne19861667166Agne, R M1986Teaching strategies for presenting ethical dilemmasFrazer, M JKornhauser, KEthics and social responsibility in science educationOxfordPermagon Press165-173Dilemmas, teaching ethics, Role-playing, case studies, simulation games,Pritchard1992901690Pritchard, M S1992Teaching engineering ethics: A case study approachTeaching engineering ethics,Case study approach, case studies,http://ethics.tamu.edu/pritchar/an-intro.htm(Agne, 1986; Pritchard, 1992; Weil, 2000). The use of dilemmas to encourage students to think for themselves certainly fits with postmodernist educational practices of thinking, reflection, meta-cognition and motivation.
Konell ADDIN EN.CITE Konell20053813381Konell, S2005Introducing students to theories of moral development:
Classroom exercise and research issuesInternational Academy of Business and (IABPAD) Public Administration Disciplines ConferenceNew Orleans, Louisiana(2005) defined a dilemma as a serious problem which has two or more alternative courses of action. Each of the alternatives can to some extent be a painful solution, but ignoring the problem may also have painful consequences. The process of technological solution requires a multi-step process of identification of problems, investigation, exploring of ideas, the logical thought process, the designing, building, testing and operation of the solution, all then followed by some evaluation.
Pritchard ADDIN EN.CITE Pritchard1992901690Pritchard, M S1992Teaching engineering ethics: A case study approachTeaching engineering ethics,Case study approach, case studies,http://ethics.tamu.edu/pritchar/an-intro.htm(1992) presents the case study (or dilemma) approach as a very effective method of teaching ethics in universities, where students can learn from the experience of others. Students are encouraged to question rather than accept current practices, to examine current, contestable value positions, and to think critically about accepted practices and norms. These intelligent processes of higher mental activities that take place in the human mind in decision-making may be described as the concept and process of cognition.
To succeed effectively with this style of instruction, Bandura ADDIN EN.CITE Bandura19913429342Bandura, A1991Social cognitive theory of moral thought sand actionKurtines, W MGewirtz, LHandbook of moral behaviourHillsdale, NJErlbaum145-103(1991) warns that the content and quality of the dilemmas needs to be very carefully chosen. Using a narrow range of dilemmas and moral conflicts can offer only a glimpse of moral reasoning and a persons propensity for principled moral reasoning will vary depending on the information included in the depicted moral conflicts (p. 5). The dilemmas used by Kohlberg were primarily of a hypothetical nature, and Bandura ADDIN EN.CITE Bandura19913429342Bandura, A1991Social cognitive theory of moral thought sand actionKurtines, W MGewirtz, LHandbook of moral behaviourHillsdale, NJErlbaum145-103(1991) is critical of Kohlbergs presentation of dilemmas because he over simplifies and strips away many of the complicating factors. Gilligan ADDIN EN.CITE Gilligan19821471147Gilligan, C1982In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development.Cambridge, MA
London, UKHarvard University Press(1982) promotes case studies by the use of personal dilemmas, an intriguing approach which would probably receive very close scrutiny by any university ethics approval committee.
In engineering education Weil ADDIN EN.CITE Weil200019716197Weil, V2000Prospects for international standardsThe Online Ethics Center For Engineering and Science200220th Mayhttp://onlineethicscenter.org/codes/weil.htm(2000) advocates the use of real historical case studies in engineering, taught by engineers who have engineering expertise. Weil ADDIN EN.CITE Weil200019716197Weil, V2000Prospects for international standardsThe Online Ethics Center For Engineering and Science200220th Mayhttp://onlineethicscenter.org/codes/weil.htm(2000) suggests that engineers need to be able to express their own viewpoints clearly (sometimes forcefully), with the imagination to see how to deploy technical insight, but show they have understood the social relationships around them to appreciate the perspectives of other parties with the ability to negotiate. Most importantly, they need to be able to imagine the consequences of alternative courses of action.
However, Lewis ADDIN EN.CITE Lewis19861657165Lewis, J L1986Ethics in the classroomFrazer, M JKornhauser, KEthics and social responsibility in science educationOxfordPermagon Press145-147teaching ethics, ethics(1986) cautions any would-be ethics teacher about the forceful teacher concept, believing it is essential that ethical matters are not dealt with in an authoritarian way. Ideally a teacher should put two sides to any argument so that the students can make up their own minds in the light of evidence.
The AUT Engineering Studies paper uses dilemmas in the classroom by examining high-profile case-studies such as the Ford Pinto, Challenger, Bhopal and Titanic disasters. These provide an excellent reinforcement of the ethical and sustainable responsibilities of decision-makers. Secondly, the students are divided in groups for a study and presentation of high-profile cases to give them an opportunity to work, critique and present collective decisions within their groups. The problem with this concept of Weils ADDIN EN.CITE Weil200019716197Weil, V2000Prospects for international standardsThe Online Ethics Center For Engineering and Science200220th Mayhttp://onlineethicscenter.org/codes/weil.htm(2000) high-profile case-study is that the students only critique other peoples decisions in hindsight. Consequently, the groups of six to eight AUT students are given a third stage of case-studies where they must make their own decisions and recommendations within.
The feedback and appraisals from the 2006 Engineering Studies paper appear to reinforce educational value of this group-work, but in assessment of this group-work it is difficult to judge the performance of an individual. This paper now examines aspects of the methodology of decision-making in groups.
Group dynamics in decision-makingThere are several issues which need to be considered with the dynamics of group decision-making, and further research may reveal how the personal values, context dependency, cognition, motivation to personal performance, and even the gender of a minority within the group can affect an individuals input to group decisions.
Personal valuesStudents will inevitably have a diverse range of values and beliefs, with different cultures, races and countries inevitably developing different values for different reasons. While centralised authority systems such as the church, or family have traditionally formed our values ADDIN EN.CITE Preston199688188Preston, N1996Understanding ethicsAnnadale, NSWThe Federation PressEthics, understanding ethics, virtue ethics,(Preston, 1996), extended family, tribal or village organisations and schools may also influence them ADDIN EN.CITE Frazer198639139Frazer, M JKornhauser, K1986IntroductionFrazer, M JKornhauser, KEthics and social responsibility in science educationOxfordPermagon PressSocial responsibility, science education, dilemma,(Frazer & Kornhauser, 1986). Although parents are initially the most dominant influence on a childs upbringing, parental control is not always exclusive, and Preston ADDIN EN.CITE Preston199688188Preston, N1996Understanding ethicsAnnadale, NSWThe Federation PressEthics, understanding ethics, virtue ethics,(1996) observed that modern shifts in ideology and worldviews have accommodated a breakdown in the centralised authority systems such as the church, moving into a "post-modern pluralistic ethical environment" (p. 6). According to the social cognitive theories of Bandura ADDIN EN.CITE Bandura19893289328Bandura, A1989Social cognitive theoryVasta, RAnnals of child developmentGreenwichJAI Press6. Six theories of child development(1989) social learning is now a continuous process in which acquired standards are elaborated, modified and new ones are adopted, and while ones values may depend on the nature and structure of society, the values a student gains may also be heavily influenced by peer groups with the adoption of views or opinions that are context dependent by the repeated observation of the standards and behaviour patterns of their peers and the influence of modern media.
Context dependencyIn my previous research ADDIN EN.CITE Reid20031313131Reid, M S2003Developing an understanding of engineering students' views of ethicsAustralasian Science Education and Research Association ConferenceMelbourneUniversity of MelbourneEthics, students understanding, laws, morality, decision-making, code of ethics, space shuttle, case studies, education research, context, sampling, questionnaires, staircasing,Reid20041950195Reid, M S2004Value-laden and ethical decision-making in a multicultural environmentLearning for Innovation in Technology Education3200465-72(Reid, 2003, 2004) I found that this context dependent situated cognition is a major influence on students perception of ethics, where their view of ethics and morality are directly influenced in terms of their social situations in the context of morality, values issues, social etiquette and cultural laws. Driver, ADDIN EN.CITE Driver199232732Driver, R1992Students' conceptions and the learning of scienceMcCormick, RMurphy, PHarrison, MTeaching and learning technologyWokingham UKAddison-Wesleyknowledge construction, construction, constructivist,(1992) describes this learners knowledge construction as a process where;
Within the broadly constructivist perspective learners are thought of as building mental representations of the world around them that are used to interpret new situations and to guide action in them. These mental representations or conceptual schemes in turn are revised in the light of their fit with experience. (p. 113)
This raises the question of whether students behave in a group as they would in practice under contextual influence of status and background in their own social environment. In such a status relationship a students individuality may possibly be concealed within the obligations and bonds of status-based relationships where individuals may find themselves unable to be individuals, as their lives may be to a certain extent already laid out for them by inherited obligations and social ties ADDIN EN.CITE Yeatman19972027202Yeatman, A1997Contract, status and personhoodDavis, GSullivan, BYeatman, AThe new contractualism?Melbourne, AustraliaMacMillan Education39-56Contractualism, Contractualist, Individualist, Individualism(Yeatman, 1997). However, Maine (cited in Yeatman, 1997) sees a gradual dissolution of family dependency from a status driven to a contractualist society where the growth of individual obligation tends to dilute the bonds of status into a society where social relationships are based on the free agreement individuals. Essentially, Maine's argument is that social contract and social status are mutually exclusive, but Yeatman disagrees. Yeatman ADDIN EN.CITE Yeatman19972027202Yeatman, A1997Contract, status and personhoodDavis, GSullivan, BYeatman, AThe new contractualism?Melbourne, AustraliaMacMillan Education39-56Contractualism, Contractualist, Individualist, Individualism(1997) describes a students status as that acquired through family relationships and where they fit into that society, which usually remains intact until an individual gains financial independence later in life. Students tend to be immersed into an environment where the status is modelled along the lines of the familiar patrimonial household hierarchy, and it may not be until they leave school that the individual contracts between other individuals without respect to ones status.
Kearney ADDIN EN.CITE Kearney20032013201Kearney, D2003Competitive individuals, experts and a socially responsible science curriculumAnnual Conference of the Australasian Science Education Research AssociationMelbourne, AustraliaJuly, 2003(2003) also makes some interesting points regarding the social aspect of student learning where individual responsibility, while important, represents far too narrower a vision, particularly for those who are being educated for positions of leadership in society (p. 3). The research of Schunk ADDIN EN.CITE Schunk19993250325Schunk, D H1999Social-self interaction and achievement behaviourEducational Psychologist344Fall99(1999) supports the hypothesis that social factors influence learners' achievement beliefs and outcomes, and when social information is internalised learners tend to employ it self-regulatively to promote achievement. This interconnection between beliefs and action in practice raises the question, what role does knowledge plays in group decision-making? Do they go back to intuition, and is that intuition rational and logical?
Previous research in ethics ADDIN EN.CITE Reid20031313131Reid, M S2003Developing an understanding of engineering students' views of ethicsAustralasian Science Education and Research Association ConferenceMelbourneUniversity of MelbourneEthics, students understanding, laws, morality, decision-making, code of ethics, space shuttle, case studies, education research, context, sampling, questionnaires, staircasing,Reid20041950195Reid, M S2004Value-laden and ethical decision-making in a multicultural environmentLearning for Innovation in Technology Education3200465-72(Reid, 2003, 2004) revealed a tendency of students in interviews to adopt an altruistic approach to carefully answering questions rather than egoistic or utilitarian, where if a student had the tendency towards a selfish or egoistic viewpoint in life generally, he/she did not own up to that in an interview to be viewed with an absence of morals or values. The question is whether the altruistic tendency takes place in group discussions. Vygotski ADDIN EN.CITE Vygotsky19623261326Vygotsky, L1962Thought and languageCambridge, MAMIT Press(1962) believes that it does, and offered the social-cultural theory that socially mediated activity can be an influence on the thought process, where the thought process can be influenced by the social environment a student is in. When coupled with personal factors the social environment can result in a cognitive change from the use of cultural tools in social interactions, and through the internal mental transformation of those interactions. Bandura ADDIN EN.CITE Bandura19893289328Bandura, A1989Social cognitive theoryVasta, RAnnals of child developmentGreenwichJAI Press6. Six theories of child development(1989) has explored the influence of this social environment on social cognition, and while people sometimes have views on what they ought to do, they can be swayed by compelling circumstances or emotional factors to behave otherwise. Furthermore, they can misread events through cognitive biases that give rise to faulty beliefs about themselves and the world around them.
CognitionThe term cognition defined by Flavell, Miller and Miller ADDIN EN.CITE Flavell20022341234Flavell, J HMiller, P HMiller, S A2002Cognitive developmentUpper Saddle River, NJPearson Education1-284th cognitive functioning, assimulation-Acommodation human cognition, biological adaptation(2002) includes the processes of intelligence, thinking, imagining, creating, generating plans, and strategies, reasoning, inferring, problem solving, conceptualising, classifying and relating, and perhaps even dreaming (p. 2). While it is obvious to the teacher that group discussion of ethical dilemmas in class encourages the process of cognition, when the students are using a group discussion to resolve ethical issues, the outcome of a decision may not gauge or reflect the true range of social values in the discussion. The concept of cognition that takes place in group discussion may include the recognition of existence of disparate views, seeking to understand them, and engaging in reasoned discussion about them within groups.
A question of interest here is whether the people in these groups recognise, state, justify and evaluate the ethical assumptions that underlie their decisions. The value positions of individuals and groups making decisions could be investigated in further research. This also raises the question of motivation within the group decision-making.
Motivation and the personal performance of a student in a groupSelf-confidence or self-efficacy can psychologically affect a group members performance. Bandura ADDIN EN.CITE Bandura19863241324Bandura, A1986Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theoryEnglewood Cliffs, NJPrentice Hall(1986b) describes human functioning in a learning environment as comprising a series of reciprocal interactions between behavioural, environmental and personal variables, which includes cognition and its effects. In any formal learning situation one of the key personal variables to effective learning is self-efficacy, where the students perceive their capabilities for learning or performing tasks at designated levels. Bandura ADDIN EN.CITE Bandura198625816258Bandura, A1986Bandura and self-efficacy200530th SeptemberSelf-efficacy, efficacyhttp:/www.des.emory.edu/mfp/efficacy.html(1986a) offers evidence that this self efficacy can influence a students achievement behaviour by determining a students choice of tasks, effort, persistence and performance. As a direct contrast to such negative self-efficacy or self doubt in ones capabilities, Bandura ADDIN EN.CITE Bandura19863241324Bandura, A1986Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theoryEnglewood Cliffs, NJPrentice Hall(1986b) maintains that efficacious students are more likely to engage in tasks, expand effort, persist to overcome difficulties, and perform at higher levels. The later research of Bandura ADDIN EN.CITE Bandura19993299329Bandura, A1999A social cognitive theory of personalityPervin, LJohn, OHandbook of personalityNew YorkGuilford Publications154-1962nd(1999) claims that the context of the cultural background directly influences a students self-efficacy and the context and social arrangement by which the students are best expressed. ADDIN EN.CITE Bandura19893289328Bandura, A1989Social cognitive theoryVasta, RAnnals of child developmentGreenwichJAI Press6. Six theories of child development(Bandura, 1989) places the onus for creating an environment conducive to the development of cognitive skills directly on the skills and talents of the teachers. The question is, will the self-efficacy change during the group discussions, and will it change again after the course? Do they adopt a vicarious position within the group (if they can do it, so can I)?
GenderWomen are traditionally and historically under-represented in engineering occupations, although according to Herring ADDIN EN.CITE Herring19993753375Herring, S D1999Women in the history of technology - Women inventorsSociety of Women Engineers HuntsvilleHuntsville4th Marchhttp://www.uah.edu/colleges/liberal/womensstudies/inventor.html(1999) the percentage of women in engineering has increased to a fifteen percent representation in the United States. However, at AUT women represent only 3% of the engineering students and one wonders if being in such a minority affects their performance within group decision-making, or the performance of the group itself. To consider some of the questions raised by this teaching methodology, further research is currently active by this author at a PhD level.
ConclusionThe AUT Engineering Studies paper challenges the students through a philosophy of interpretive understanding and the provision of influential experiences in value-laden and morality-based decision-making. However, this review of the usefulness of dilemmas as a teaching tool in the AUT engineering studies paper leaves many research questions unanswered, and has identified several opportunities within that teaching methodology for further research. Is this process the most effective methodology for teaching ethics and sustainability in engineering? Clearly some measurement of what the present Engineering Studies paper achieves is desirable, with a view to an intervention to correct any shortcomings. This researcher is engaged in PhD research at AUT where a small part of the thesis investigates any change brought about through a progressive post-modern educational programme using group decision-making with the study of dilemmas as a teaching methodology.
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